Transcultural Leadership: A Necessity in the New American Workforce By Adrian America is becoming increasingly more diverse, so to is its workforce, which will provide additional challenges for transcultural leaders as we approach a new age of cross-cultural communication, global interconnectedness, and persistently changing business dynamics. Recent United States census data show that one in every three Americans belongs to a racial/ethnic minority (Tomoeda & Bayles, 2002). Wanguri (1996) explained that there has been increased attention given to diversity in the workplace because recent U.S. labor statistics also predict that by the turn of the century, five-sixths of new workers in the U.S. will be women, African-Americans, Latinos, Asian, or Native-American. In August of 2008, "USA Today" reported that racial and ethnic minorities in the U.S. will become the majority by 2042, and three years sooner than that, they will be the majority in the workforce population (ages 18-64).
These statistics make it evident that Americans, no matter what cultural or ethnic background, gender, or sexual orientation, the laws of physics demand that we will come in contact with each other in one way or another; and that we will have to learn how to work together even more so. Lustig and Koester (2006) noted that there are numerous opportunities to have interactions with people who have very different cultural backgrounds, adding that these experiences and interactions occur in everyday life, and are an inevitable part of our life experience. In every industry, working professionals need to interact with people from various ethnic and national backgrounds (Peterson, 2004).
Becoming culturally competent is important since we come into contact with so many groups from different backgrounds in all facets of our lives (Peterson, 2004). One might even argue that our very existence, as a society, depends on our becoming more culturally competent, to operate more efficiently in business, educational settings, and social settings. Fortune Magazine recently reported that over the last several years, companies with positive workplace environments for people of color have performed very well in the S&P 500 stock index (Distelhorst, 2007).
Because of this cultural diversity shift, it is especially important that staffs in the workplace learn how to work well together, especially for minorities, as the statistics show that companies who did well in intercultural staff relations, outperform other companies, who may not provide the same cohesive work environment. Tomoeda &
Bayles (2002) added that developing respect for cultural diversity is extremely important for success in the workplace, and is the groundwork for building intercultural competence. In addition, Harris (2003) explained that as it relates to U.S. corporations and businesses, globalization, glocalization, the diversity of the American workforce, and growth in American tourism, necessitate improved intercultural communication.
(Caputo et al.) noted that becoming interculturally competent involved such things as motivation, to want to communicate with others who are different and knowledge, understanding other costumes in order to respond appropriately. It would seem obvious that organizations who want to thrive in this kind of work environment, which is so dynamic and diverse, would make it a priority to provide a positive, inclusive, and non-discriminatory workplace. But unfortunately, this does not always occur.
Meares, Oetzel, Torres, Derkacs, & Ginossar (2004) noted that in the U.S., 23% of those who experience mistreatment in the workplace (institutional discrimination or inappropriate interpersonal interaction) were from minority groups, 77% were women, and most of this mistreatment (81%) was directed at them by their supervisors. These statistics are consistent with reports of tension and conflict, as it relates to discrimination, in the workplace (Meares et al., 2004).
This type of work environment, which is toxic for those who experience harassment or discrimination, is unacceptable and has unfortunate consequences such as low morale and low work retention. This is especially true for women who work in traditionally male dominated areas, such as sports. Hardin & Shain (2005) reported that women sports journalists commonly faced sexual harassment in the workplace; and many women reported inappropriate sexual misconduct by male athletes towards female reporters; adding, also that females expressed that there was little opportunity for advancement and promotion as well, in this industry, for them.
There needs be attention given to this dynamic demographic trend in the U.S. workforce, and how to best navigate through it, and get the best out of all of the magnificent, diverse, unique talents that we all bring to our career field. This must occur in a safe, inclusive, and open environment that respects all groups.
This paper will discuss and review several research studies of discriminatory workplace practices, implications of workplace intolerance on its victims, as well as the negative impact on organizations, and what leaders in all sectors need to do to become more effective, interculturally, in the work setting.
Tatum (1997) argued that racism exists in a systematic form in the U.S. that benefits whites and disadvantages people of color. Rapoport, et al. (2002) noted that gender biases and stereotyping occurs in the workplace, as these norms were constructed by white, middle class, married men and have long historical roots; and many in these organizations may be resistant to change. Meares et al. (2004) cited recent studies that showed that 50% of the American workforce reported experiencing mistreatment, and added that a recent study in Michigan showed one in six people experienced hurtful and disruptive, mistreatment in the workplace.
Meares et al. (2004) conducted a study which examined a large technical research company and documented the mistreatment of its culturally diverse workforce (as reported by workers in interviews). Meares et al. (2004) noted that mistreatment of employees can result in depression and anxiety of these workers, and can interfere in individual and organizational productivity. This study defined "mistreatment" as systematic institutional policies against these individuals and inappropriate behavior, such as verbal abusive. This study also noted that culturally diverse in terms of its meaning and how it applies in this study, included: nationality, ethnicity, age, gender, sexual orientation, as well as other secondary criteria such as education level and job status.
Meares et al. (2004) went on to describe that privileged voices in the company have more access and power and are more likely to be heard; and "mistreatment" was further defined as unfair organizational practices, lack of company resources, fewer opportunities for advancement, or harassment, to name a few. In addition, Meares et al. (2004) explained that those groups that were mistreated in the workplace became "muted groups" within an organization, and were less likely to be heard, as is the case in the larger society, where the dominant group, Whites, have more privilege, power, and influence.
Meares at al. (2004) found it clear that certain groups based on gender, ethnicity, or job status were being muted, or discriminated against by this organization. Furthermore, the study found that people with the most power in an organization were more highly to be educated, white males. Privileged staff members were more likely to speak out, assert themselves within the company, which also reflects their social standing in the larger society, which has been developed through the educational system in the U.S. (Meares, 2004) .
Tatum (1997) described "White privilege" in that not only do Whites, through institutionally racially discriminatory policies gain access to better jobs and housing, but also in work settings they gain an advantage. In addition, the study done by Meares et al. (2004) showed that Whites in this company had more influence and power, while other groups were marginalized. Tatum (1997) also further explained that when Blacks speak up in work meetings, they were more likely to be labeled and be defined from a negative cultural perspective, and that this behavior did not connect with White cultural norms, as opposed to Whites who were never judged in that manner at all, when they behaved the same.
The challenge for minorities in the work place is that not only do they have negative perceptions and stereotypes from the broader society that carry over into the workplace setting, no matter what kind of inclusive work environment that is provided; organizational leaders need to be aware of these outside influences and stereotypes, and its potential impact on its staff and company.
In another study on discrimination in the work setting, Prichard and Stonbely (2007) studied how news stories at a single newspaper organization in Wisconsin assigned stories to its reporters, and how often the stories were divided by content, related to race. This study noted that news editors determined which stories had minority angles and which didn't; and in most cases, minorities were assigned to "minority themed" stories in the community. Some African-American reporters feared speaking up about this practice, but did not want to cause problems with their editors, as some wanted to diversify their assignments (Prichard and Stonbely, 2007).
In addition, the study noted that even though editors stated that they assigned stories that dealt with minorities to minority journalists because of a cultural affinity based on background, the same was not for Whites, as they were assigned to cover business and government stories—established power structures. It was not overtly said, but implied by management that White reporters should be assigned more important stories (Prichard and Stonbely, 2007).
Furthermore, Prichard and Stonbely (2007) added that minority stories were more localized page two stories, which can be classified by news agencies as less important. Prichard and Stonbely (2007) noted that by this hierarchal news story structure, minorities in this news organization may feel devalued or marginalized, based on news assignments given and the level of importance, which may not even be a conscious effort, by its editors. In essence, minorities aren't put in positions of influence in this newspaper organizational and power structure, which gives them less opportunity, less power. Much as Tatum (1997) described that occurs in the larger society, where Whites gain access and influence to established White power structures, such as politics and business, and minorities because of these exisisting power structures, have less access and opportunity, than Whites.
If there was a minority writer who was more interested in other news stories because of existing power structures in the work place and in society, he or she may be less likely to speak up because of fear of being judged negatively as Tatum (1997) had noted. Furthermore, because of these existing societal power structures, employers such as this newspaper organization in this study, either intended or not, may not be getting the most of its employees, as African-Americans who may have a special talent or interest in the business or political realm, are less likely to be assigned these news stories.
In addition, this outdated business approach to the news may also be hindering its productivity and profit margin because again, this news organization is not using its talented human capital effectively. Rapopart et al. (2002) explained that the workplace has long standing approaches and out-dated organizational structures, and in examining these old strategies, in some cases, can possibly help the company run more efficiently and effectively, therefore making it more profitable.
This news organization, unconsciously or not, by exercising this practice of racial labeling, or as the title of this journal article indicates, "racial profiling in the newsroom" the unintended consequences may be that minorities in this workplace may feel dismissed or as Meares at al. (2004) mentioned, "muted" and feel less valued than their White colleagues.
Women as well, can feel "muted" or less valued in the workplace as (Meares et al., 2004) pointed out in a recent survey, that of 23% of U.S. workers who have felt workplace discrimination, 77% were women. Hardin & Shain (2005) noted that in 2001, a survey of women Journalists showed that females made up 11 percent of employees in newspapers departments; and a more recent survey showed that many newspaper sports departments don't employee any women at all. An additional survey showed that more women, 38%, do work in other parts of the newsroom, and that the average career for women in sports journalism lasts 10-years (Hardin & Shain, 2005).
Recent data also shows that newsrooms in general, are still dominated by men, as women have made little progress into managerial or positions of power in news organizations (Hardin & Shain, 2005). Many news rooms, especially sports departments, value aggressive behavior and value independence, competitiveness, and confrontation; and women surveyed reported that news editors devalued and discriminated against women's perspectives (sports related or not) Hardin & Shain (2005). Rapaport et al. (2002) explained that in many cases, the workplace highly values assertive, aggressive, and traditional masculine behavior, while a relational skills, team building, and collaborative approaches to problems and communication, which are traditional female characteristics, are undervalued.
Hardin & Shain (2005) surveyed over 200 female sports journalist and found that although many faced sexual harassment and discrimination in the workplace, many were also frustrated with the lack of managerial opportunities and promotions. Many women expressed their dissatisfaction with this inequality and lack of advancement opportunities, and were frustrated about working in a male dominated organizational structure; and a large number of women contemplated leaving this industry because of this gender imbalance (Hardin & Shain, 2005).
As has been noted by Rapoport et al. (2002) male whites have constructed the workplace to favor themselves. Tatum (1997) also added, that dominant societal, political, economic groups set the parameters and set power structures as they see fit.
The study done by Hardin & Shain (2002) showed that female sports journalists have difficulty ascending to positions of power and influence within male dominated sports organizations. Minorities, women, and other diverse groups whose social, cultural, and family structure are different than that of White, married middle-class men can face difficult obstacles in the workplace. Discrimination, harassment, racial and gender biases and stereotypes, lack of promotions and advancements, humiliation, marginalization, silencing, devaluation, etc. and the negative implications this treatment has on the individual worker, as well as the entire organization, can be very harmful and its impact long lasting.
Implications of Discrimination in the Workplace
Meares et al. (2004) wrote that there are long-term consequences, as a result of the mistreatment or discrimination of employees. Meares et al. (2004) further mentioned that what can't be ignored is that many employees they surveyed who reported feeling unheard and powerless within an organization, were from minority groups or women.
Meares et al., (2004) noted that mistreated employees may emotionally withdraw at work and experience heightened health problems such as heart disease, ulcers, and psychological effects. These mistreated employees are more likely to miss work, which along with additional health treatment, comes medical costs which are absorbed by the organization, as well the individual (Meares et al., 2004).
Mearas et al. (2004) added that there are additional negative consequences that affect organizations as well as a result of workplace mistreatment of these groups, such as low work retention rates, as many workers leave a company or organization if they feel mistreated. Hardin & Shain (2005) further explained that many women in the sports journalism field expressed their frustration with an unequal work environment for women, and considered leaving that industry because of this discrimination. Hardin & Shain (2005) noted that the average career for women in sports journalism lasts 10-years (Hardin & Shain, 2005). It would seem not very cost effective nor productive if companies have to continually invest valuable time, money, energy and resources to fill these positions.
Hardin & Shain (2005) further mentioned that women are also challenged by old work and family constructs that favor men when it comes to family and care giving, which adds additional stress for women, and possibly the reason why the number of women in the fields of technology and science are as low as they are. Rapoport et al. (2003) added that in many cases women feel additional performance pressures and stressors in balancing family and work obligations, which can lead to an unhealthy work/life situation for women. As previously mentioned Rapport et al. (2003) documented that a recent poll showed that 86% of women in the workplace felt added work/family stressors, and in some cases, this may have led to destructive behaviors, such as alcohol abuse.
A poll conducted to measure sleep habits found that nearly 40 percent of both men and women reported spending much more time at work, and less time on sleep and leisure activities than just five years ago (Rapopart et al., 2002). Obviously, the workplace can be a negative setting for many employees because of organizational discriminatory practices that can occur based on misperceptions and old ways of doing things. Old organizational work models can have a negative impact on the quality of life for all its employees as well. Companies that explore these old work models may also benefit by changing them.
The following is a good example of this. Rapaport et al. 2002 noted that many organizations place a premium on time, and the misperception that workers who spend endless hours of time at work, are more effective or more committed. Rapport et al. (2002) explained this concept as an old model constructed by White, middle class, married males and can be an inaccurate. Rapaport et al. (2002) noted many documented cases where staffs are given increased flexibility and autonomy to finish projects on deadline, did so, without spending additional time at work. In turn, this gave workers opportunities to spend quality time with family or leisure activities, and/or focus on additional work projects, making companies more efficient and productive, not to mention a healthier, more balanced staff member (Rapaport, et al., 2002).
Distelhorst (2007) also noted that old misperceptions such as female math competency stereotypes, that women are not as proficient at math, as men, can still persist, affecting perceptions of women, especially in the workplace. Subsequently women have reported feeling devalued or dismissed in meetings and projects based on this inaccurate perception (Distelhorst, 2007).
Simmons et al. (1993) noted that barriers to contribution can occur within a group if it perceives a negative bias towards them within an organization; and employees felt that organizations that were less open to input, therefore hindering their contributions, made these workers feel like outsiders in their respective departments and within the organization.
There are additional monetary costs to a company which is accused of discriminatory work policies, such as the multitude of law suits filed over the years that have been very costly to companies, such as Texaco in 1996,
which was ordered to pay $176.1 million for racially insensitive remarks made against African-Americans—not to mention the negative publicity that this can bring to a company.
Society also suffers in so many ways when discrimination occurs at any level, to any group, in any sector, and the affects and implications of this discrimination may never be measured fully (especially on the individual). The video series, "Power of Illusion" showed how institutional racism, and public policies which support discriminatory policies based on race or culture impacts our society in terms of the power, access, and economic imbalance that can occur to discriminated groups. Racial, gender, or cultural discrimination also debases the individual human affected and labeled in this manner, making the mistreated feel less worthy or unwanted by the dominant group.
This video illustrated this tragic point when it showed how Japanese-Americans were put in Interment Camps as result of the U.S. Government's "Executive order 9006." Per the video this action was taken against Japanese-Americans living in the U.S., after Japanese military forces during WW II attacked a U.S. navy base in Hawaii, Pearl Harbor. The U.S. feared that Japanese-Americans may be traitors and would rise up against the U.S. government, even though many Japanese-Americans had been living in the U.S. for several generations. In addition, they were stripped of their property, as the U.S. government took it over. A very humiliating experience as historians pointed out in the video, "Power of Illusion."
As indicated by Meares et al. (2003) mistreatment of employees negatively affects the individual victim/worker, organizational productivity as well as the culture within the company, and our society on a whole. There can be parallels drawn between a society that disenfranchises its people, as has occurred throughout American history, such as "Executive Order 9006", and today's work place, intended or not, which devalues its employees because of discriminatory policies, negative stereotypes and assumptions, and overt inappropriate behavior. The negative consequences of this action have been chronicled. Meares et al. (2003) articulated that if employees don't feel that their voices are heard and valued by an organization, they will continue to feel "muted" or dismissed.
Transcultural leadership must include new and innovative ways of thinking about the many issues that confront our world, our society, our communities, and our workplace. As has been mentioned, the workforce is quickly changing, becoming more and more diverse, and organizational leaders need to be aware of these changing demographics. Simmons et al. (1993) also noted that managers are reluctant to address the changing workforce because of old management manufacturing industrial models, which are less responsive to its staff.
Simmons et al. (1993) further noted that there are many examples of companies which employ a more responsive managerial approach, as it relates to diversity in the workplace, and the superior company performance of companies which do. It's not surprising that the data show that companies who are committed to a better workplace for "all" and seek enhanced multicultural staff relations, outperform other companies in profits and productivity. As previously noted, organizations that allow its workers the opportunity to express concerns, views, and take on work place gender assumptions are important toward a more productive and healthy work environment, as gender biases are challenged (Rapoport, et al. 2002).
Simmons et al. (1993) added that by not understanding cultural differences and assuming a monoculture management mindset (that white, male, middle class cultural values) should be practiced in the workplace at all times, and leads to problems in the workplace among different groups, as one group may feel less valued than another. Simmons et al. (1993) further mentioned that a polycentric management mindset values differences, diverse points of view, seeks additional input and consensus on decisions, while leaving open the opportunity to adjust tactics, if necessary, and take more of a team approach and shared responsibilities, up and down the organization.
Hardin & Shain (2005) previously noted that women journalists have been leaving news agencies, in particular, the sports area because of gender discrimination, harassment, and lack of advancement opportunities. Hardin & Shain (2005) further mentioned that it's the obligation of sports managers and leaders to diversify its staff up and down the organizational ladder, for differing perspectives, opinions, and input. News agencies should work hard to keep talented and dedicated women journalists in this industry (Hardin & Shain, 2005). As has been mentioned, many women are not being retained in this field, as well as other male dominated fields such as technology and science (Hardin & Shain, 2005).
In a fast changing world (including demographics) organizational leaders need to be prepared to adjust quickly. Another additional example of this is the General Motors Company. GM continued to manufacture cars that were bigger, less fuel efficient, more expensive, etc., and because of the changing global economy and world environmental concerns, GM was left behind; and are where they are: near bankruptcy.
Simmons, Vazquez, & Harris (1993) previously noted that the U.S. workplace and leadership is resistance to change and must learn to share decision making and implement strategies, valuing all organizational input, in order to meet changing global demands.
Simmons et al. (1993) added that companies need to seek input from all of its workers, which may lead to increased efficiency in certain areas. Simmons et al. (1993) further illustrated that labor and management has had an adversarial relationship and that management must embrace the changing diverse workforce. It seems rather ironic that Simmons et al. (1993) raised concerns about American auto industries managerial practices, in the early 1990's, in light of what has occurred more recently in this industry and GM.
(Caputo et al.) noted that becoming interculturally competent involved such things as motivation, knowledge, and developing skill sets, such as empathy. I agree with these important intercultural competencies as they should apply to the American workplace. It would benefit leaders in all sectors of society to know how the work place is changing demographically and provide learning opportunities to its staff and training in the area of cultural, ethnic, and gender relations.
A polycentric centered management approach would seem to lend its self to this diverse converging workforce. A key to understanding some potentially differing cultural behavioral differences is important for better cultural understanding; and are important steps towards becoming a better transcultural leader. In addition, as Tatum (1997) noted, not all behavior should be labeled and categorized favoring one culture over another, and being aware that each person is also an individual is important as well.
Distelhorst's Strategic Approach to building personal & organizational "Intercultural Competence" noted some very important steps to creating a highly effective multicultural team. Distelhorst (2007) emphasized that intercultural competence is key in facilitating that a multicultural workplace be more effective because it embraces cultural differences (positively) and taking a proactive approach towards culturally sensitive behaviors and actions, while working together, on the way to a more effective, successful, and profitable organization.
Distelhorst (2007) listed some keys to intercultural competence within organizations, such as a commitment by management to a long term change and plan towards an inclusive multi-cultural work environment, assess how the company is performing in this area, address concerns and issues that come up, and provide training in multi-cultural work relations. Distelhorst (2007) added organizations should be committed to effective multicultural work dynamics among its staff because of the added benefit of improved productivity and output.
Scott (2007) documented that the San Antonio Human Resources Association (SAHRMA) recently formed a diversity committee to develop diversity programs to meet its regions multi-cultural and multi-generational workplace population. This committee has put forth some very important initiatives, such as understanding various cultures through a "Who am I?" program and developing a cultural events calendar, as well as developing a SAHRMA newsletter to discuss important diversity workplace issues and provide information. It's important for organizations, such as SAHRMA, to be proactive in its efforts to make the workplace highly functioning, culturally tolerant, and dynamic. Scott (2007) added that the results of SAHRMA's diversity program are to soon to tabulate. But efforts that companies make to educate and inform its workforce about diversity need to be applauded.
In addition, as noted in the video "Invisible Rules: Men Women and Teams" no one way is better when it comes to gender differences in how each approaches different work situations, they are just different and understanding those differences and embracing them makes for a more inclusive, productive, and effective organization.
Empowering the New Workforce
Simmons et al. (1993) also noted that "managing" employees takes a more of planning, controlling approach to an organization and its staff, as opposed to an "empowering" mindset which involves letting go, creating a learning environment, and setting high performance standards. Companies, as has been documented that provide healthier, more flexible, open, culturally inclusive work environments, perform better. And an empowering managerial mindset would seem to answer the needs of its entire workforce, especially, culturally diverse employees.
Meares et al. (2004) had noted that workers involved in their study mentioned that it was good that they were able give feedback, express how they felt, in terms of feeling, "muted" within the organization. But workers also expressed that companies need to hear their views and input more often, not just occasionally or when a study is conducted Meares et al. (2004). Meares had suggested that there be more focus groups, or input sessions by the company to address these issues before they become a problem. Simmons et al. (1993) mentioned that new leadership mindsets include an open door policy towards workers, visitors, and customers which make leaders more responsive, as staff are treated as equals. This is very important for morale and self-worth for many employees, especially different cultural groups in the workplace, so that they can feel a part of the organization and more connected or vested, which of course has shown to improve company productivity.
In addition, as noted by Simmons et al. (1993) leaders that instill empowerment in its workforce by showing vision, being role models and mentors, and value differing cultural and gender perspectives; and who are not afraid of change, will be the most capable of responding to organizational needs, as we move forward towards a more diverse and dynamic workforce.
It would make sense that in a world that is changing in so many ways, demographically, socially, economically, and technologically, that transcultural organizational leaders who are aware of these changes and how they impact an organization, would be the most successful and viable.
As has been chronicled, the U.S. demographic is shifting, becoming more and more culturally diverse, so that means organizations need to address this changing dynamic in the workplace, so that all are working effectively towards one conmen goal: a profitable organization. Unfortunately, many companies, whether intended or not, sometimes lose sight of providing a safe work climate for different groups, such as minorities and women. This intolerance can have negative implications on the self-worth of victims of workplace discrimination, such as feeling less valued by the company, low work retention and decreased job performance. Companies are also negatively affected when they allow toxic work environments to exist because of lower company output as a result of low worker morale associated with discrimination. Finally, companies who employ newer leadership models, that are less hierarchal focused, and provide for increased feedback from all in the company, continued educational and learning opportunities in the area of cross cultural interaction; and empower workers to feel vested in the company in an open and flexible work climate, are more likely to succeed, and meet the ever changing diverse needs of the new American workforce.
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Exploring Gender Communication Leadership Dynamics By Adrian
The "USA Today" reported that in January, 2007, President Obama signed into law a gender equity directive named, "The Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act" which allows for individual workers to sue for pay discrimination. In addition, recent employment statistics as reported by "USA Today" show that women are edging closer to outnumbering men in the workplace for the first time in history due to long term changes in women's roles, and the millions of jobs lost during the recent recession. Even as the female workforce increases towards majority levels, and gender equity salary laws are enacted, women are still less likely than men to be CEOs of large companies.
Fine and College (2009) noted that there are only 9 CEOs in the top 500 corporations in the United State and added, "women comprise only 5% of the top earners, 16% of corporate officers, and 13.6% of board members" (p. 182). Furthermore, these authors explained that organizations reflect gender and power interactions that are present in the larger society, and that research implies that masculine types of leadership are more valued and rewarded by corporations. Leaders in the U.S. and Western cultures are perceived to have these masculine qualities, such as being direct and powerful (Fine and College, 2009).
The way in which men and women are perceived in terms of how they lead, how they interact and communicate in small groups and interpersonally, may have implications, as the previous statistics might suggest. Fine and College further explained that recent studies have shown that women leaders do operate differently than men, and that they are likely to be more collaborative, nurturing, and democratic (2009). These authors added that despite gains made by women in the workplace, studies indicate that good managers continue to be described as masculine.
This paper will review gender theories on small group and interpersonal communication. Explore female leadership approaches, and perceived communication leadership effectiveness. Discuss relevant research in the area of communication leadership, and integrate relevant theories and research to a small group case study, as well as an individual interview recently conducted. Finally, future implications of this data and research in the area of communication leadership, and gender roles in the workplace will be discussed.
Small groups gender theories
Meyers, Berdahl, Brashers, Considine, Kelly, Moore, Peterson, and Spoor noted that scholars form the feminine perspective attempt to understand and advocate the elimination of oppression and dominance, and to be replaced with equal relationships (as noted in Poole and Hollingshead, 2005). Meyers et al., added that feminists assume that men and women are each equally capable; factors such as societal or political influence gendered behaviors; gender impacts groups. Furthermore, these authors explained that feminist theorists are interested in examining how relationships, power, and roles are formed within groups based on sex and gender.
Structural Inequality is an example of a feminist theory that focuses on political, social, and economic structures that influence gender, social, and sexual roles and how these structures reinforce roles, giving men an advantage over women (Meyers et al., as noted in Poole and Hollingshead, 2005). Meyers, et al. discussed research findings related to feminist perspective on small group communication; for example, same sex groups engage in more gender stereotypical behaviors than do mixed groups; men prefer a more top down, autocratic form of leadership, and women prefer a more shared, democratic approach; men are selected as task leaders more often than not; in a competitive environment, men use information to benefit their own standing, and women are more likely to share information (as noted in Poole and Hollingshead, 2005).
Interpersonal communication theories
Parks explained that it appears that men and women go about establishing personal relationships in similar ways (as noted in Stewart, 2009). Parks continued, "for both men and women, closeness, commitment, and the amount of communication with the partner are all positively linked to each other and to the level of support and interaction with network members" (Stewart, p. 347).
Wood explained that gendered speech communities teach each sex to communicate in ways that society defines femininity and masculinity (as explained in Stewart, 2009). Wood added that not all women operate from social normative feminine perspectives, and that not all men mirror these normative views of masculinity, but research does indicative that typically women and men do integrate each of these viewpoints, respectively, from their speech communities (Stewart, 2009)
This author explained that men usually view intimacy established one time, and need no further mention of it; whereas women, in general, require additional and continuous discussion on the matter of intimacy. Wood noted that tension occurs between genders because of misinterpretations on communication, and that it would be beneficial if each sex avoided attempts to interpret other's through their own lens (perspective); adding "to understand them on their own terms" (as noted in Stewart, 2009, p. 362).
Exploring female communication leadership approaches and social norms
A survey in 2000 by Business Week related to workplace management interaction showed that women consistently rated higher than men in peer performance reviews in areas such as motivating others, fostering communication, and producing high quality work (Rapopart, Bailyn, Fletcher, & Pruitt, 2002). Yet many women have reported that in the workplace, men tend to dominate in mixed groups, and are more aggressive in expressing their views; subsequently gaining advantage in the workplace in terms of status and power (Distelhorst, 2007).
It would seem that these two points of information seem to contradict each other. But perceived gender roles in our society and in the workplace value masculine dominant traits, and overlook relational competence or the ability to communicate
(Rapopart et al., 2002). Socialization explanations of gender point to learning these types of "gender roles" from birth and on into the school system, family, peer interaction; and that men and women are socialized differently around dominance and deference (Distelhorst, 2007). This would seem to support the premise and inquiries of feminist theorists in small groups, who are interested in how groups are formed based on power, relationships, and communication (Meyers, et al. as noted in Poole and Hollingshead, 2005).
Fine and College (2009) added that research has shown that male masculine leadership approaches such as aggression and power are more valued in the workplace, than female leadership methods, for example collaboration and encouragement. Fine and College (2009) further mentioned that research has also indicated that as opposed to men, women leaders are more willing to help other's and, "are more likely to engage in caring, personal communication" (p. 184).
The workplace has historically valued these male traits, as many company's over emphasize technical abilities, while overlooking important skill-sets, such as team building, cooperation, and reflective analysis (Rapopart et al., 2002). In many cases traits and skills such as relational competence that are thought of as female in nature, can be just as important to a company as technical abilities, but are not valued, as previously mentioned. (Rapopart et al., 2002). One example of the importance of relational competence to an organization is relationship building with potential and current clients, as this is necessary for any successful business.
Winter, Neal, and Waner (2001) noted that men more than women are more likely to become group leaders and men participate more in mixed group discussions. Winter, et al. added that some research indicates that women are held to higher standards in team work situations, and in these groups women tend to share info, and that even when women adopt male communication styles, they are more likely to be dismissed (2001). The authors added that many of these gender differences may be a result of culture and role expectation.
Relevant research
Fine and College (2009) conducted a narrative survey of 15 prominent female leaders to discuss their experiences. The authors of this study explained that the purpose of the qualitative surveys was to highlight similarities and tie them to existing theories, or examine possible new theoretical approaches to leadership. All of those interviewed were Caucasian. In terms of leadership behaviors all participants expressed the importance of team work, and all believed in open communication. Many noted how being inclusive and team building were important aspects to leadership.
In addition, as it relates to communication, one participant explained how important it was to communicate to her staff, and that she encouraged all ideas to be expressed. Fine and College noted that one of the implications of the interviews was that these leaders considered ethics central to the charge of leadership, and that caring was also vital as a leader (2009). These authors explained that the narratives indicated that women leaders not only view the issue of moral leadership as important in dealings and interactions within the company, but also extended to organizational character, ethical policies, and decisions making that benefit the outside world.
A separate study by Aldoory and Toth (2004) focused on types of leadership styles in the public relations area. This study explored transformational leadership: a more collaborative approach associated with female leadership practices, and transactional: more associated with male authoritarian leadership style. Aldoory and Toth randomly distributed 4,000 questionnaires to members of Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) to measure leadership traits. There were follow-up focus groups conducted to get more in depth information from respondents.
This study found that the survey respondents favored transformational leadership style over the transactional leadership method. Those surveyed agreed that today's leaders need to challenge traditional company protocol, that good relationships between leaders is important, and that effective leaders in public relations should help improve people's self worth. In addition, these respondents disagreed that a leader cannot be emotionally involved and also be effective, and must stay in control at all times.
Furthermore, focus group discussions supported situational leadership, which combines transformational and transactional leadership in dealing with unique situations. Women in public relations combine both types of leadership styles, depending on the situation. Finally, women overall were viewed as better leaders in public relations due to socialization traits they have acquired, such as empathy and collaboration, resembling transformational leadership. An additional study conducted by Rucker and Gendrin (2007) examined direct communication approaches and satisfaction communication styles between males and females The 203 participants were from a predominantly White mid-western university, and completed questionnaires over a two semesters to make sure there were enough respondents.
One interesting aspect of the results of this study had to with direct and indirect communication styles between the sexes. In terms of indirect communication, men scored significantly higher than women, which as the authors noted is contrary to prior research. Rucker and Gendrin (2007) explained that this could because of the influence of technology communication in today's communication process, which has multi dimensional platforms, and is no longer a two way model. They further noted that today's communication style focuses on the individual in a more participatory environment. One example of this could be Facebook.com or Twitter.com, where people post pictures, videos, blogs, direct message, and communicate with a variety of people using this communication technology platform.
In addition, women tend to be more verbal, but new technology communication tools can facilitate a more direct approach to communication (Rucker and Gendrin, 2007). Furthermore, women are increasingly entering higher education making them more independent economically and having more influence on new methods of communication, which is more inclusive through this media technology where they can be just as assertive as males.
Small groups focus group
This focus group on "gender differences in leadership roles" consisted of 4 males and 3 females, all undergraduate college students, age range from 18 to early 30s. Samples of the some of the questions were as follows: What are your thoughts on women and men in leadership positions? What has been your experience with working with Women or Men in leadership roles? Did you notice any differences in terms of how either gender approached situations or problems?
Overall the group felt that although there have been strides made in term of equality in the work place when it comes to women in leadership roles, the reality does not fit this ideal; women are still behind men in this area, and are at a disadvantage. Fine and College (2007) noted that the numbers for women in powerful positions such as CEOs of fortune 500 companies is less than 1%.
Some in the focus group explained that women are more professional, men operate in a "man's world" or "boys network" and are aware of the advantage they possess and in many cases abuse this power position by acting unprofessionally and unethically. Although several in the group preferred a male leadership style because of a more direct approach that men tend to have, per their experiences. Fine and College (2009) noted that research has shown that male masculine leadership approaches such as aggression and power are more valued in the workplace, than female leadership methods, for example collaboration and encouragement.
Many felt that whether it's a male of female leader, they want someone who is a critical thinker, fair, impartial and imparts trust; and that they can do the job, no matter the gender. Furthermore, some noted that when there is a blend of sexes in leadership positions there seems to be fewer work related issues in groups, such as level of respect and appreciation of employees or conflict caused when employees feel disrespected or devalued. Poole and Hollingshead found that mixed gender leadership structures in organizations tend to have fewer issues with gender stereo types (2005).
Most in the group preferred a collaborative, inclusive approach to leadership, but agreed that in certain situations, a direct approach may be more appropriate, such as lower level job functions, instructing someone to clean a table, etc. And that in more complex work situation, input is a better approach. Research by Aldoory and Toth (2004) indicated that overall, public relations professional preferred a more inclusive and collaborative approach, but they also considered that at times, both approaches, a more autocratic style may have to be used, depending on the situation.
Some group members felt that leaders who were more educated seemed to be more knowledgeable, no matter the gender, and that was a basis for "ineffective" leadership practices. Others felt that women in leadership positions are more times than not, not taken seriously because of gender stereotypes about women's leadership capabilities as decision makers. Poole and Hollingshead (2005) noted that women are less likely to be in positions of leadership, and perceived as less capable leaders. Winter et al. added that even when women take on leadership positions, and mirror masculine communication leadership approaches, they are more likely to be dismissed (2001).
Individual Interpersonal Communication Interview
This interview was conducted with a second year female undergraduate student. The questions were the same as above, but additional questions were added, such as, what type of communication approach she uses in confrontational situations with friends, and/or other situations, and asked to use an example.
This student noted that she tends to avoid confrontations, would rather walk away, or try to make the situation better. She explained that with her boyfriend, she tends to appease him, and does what he says to, "not hear him complain" as she put it. An example as she explained was that her boy friend does not want her to eat junk food, so she doesn't in front of him, and when he leaves she runs to her room and says she eats the cookies he made her put away. Wood noted that gendered speech communities teach each sex to communicate in ways that society defines femininity and masculinity (as explained in Stewart, 2009). This could be the reason why she avoids confrontations because societal norms may influence her reaction, to avoid direct confrontation. As prior research in the area of male and female communication has indicated, males are socialized to be more confrontational and aggressive and females to be more passive (Fine and College, 2009).
She also explained that she prefers a male boss because she noted that females tend to be overbearing and hard on her, but she did say that females have it hard because they have to be that way in a male dominated world. As Winter, et al. noted some research indicated that women are held to a higher standard in team work situations, and even when women adopt male communication styles, they are more likely to be dismissed (2001).
The interviewee also indicated that she tries really hard to get along with others. She said that she is a good communicator and is always positive. She noted that she prefers a more collaborative managerial style because the more people working, the more input, the better a company can change and respond to situations as needed. Fine and College explained that women leaders tend to value communication and input, and a shared approach to leadership. Communication and collaboration would seem like an excellent approach to run a company or lead an organization especially in the fast changing, technology driven culture we live in.
Implications
The low numbers of women in positions of power in the workplace is staggering, especially when one considers that as reported by the USA Today, women may be the majority of workers in our current economy. We should not devalue the contributions of women in the workforce; stereotype them as less effective because of their perceived ineffective communication leadership methods, as formulated by our social norms. It would seem that the demands on women who are becoming more a part of the workforce, who in many cases continue to have the pressure of home obligations, such as children, can be very stressful. Rapopart et al., (2002) noted that a survey showed that 86 percent of women reported feeling tired and stressed in relation to work and home demands, impacting their quality of life, as some women reported alcohol abuse and overeating among other destructive behavior.
Fine and College (2009) explained that past research as it relates to women in the workplace has noted that women tend to define themselves by their relationships, and subjugate to this role. These authors added that women never fulfill their potential and ambition to climb the corporate ladder because of the conflict between family life and the devaluation of them as nurturers in organizational structures. But these authors explained that in their interviews with prominent leaders, they as a whole expressed the feminist perspective, which was to reject social normative constructs of what defines an effective leader. These women leaders still expressed the desire and ambition to have an impact as a professional, to create a community, and do good work, in an inclusive and collaborative environment.
What is encouraging is that there are not only changes occurring in workplace demographics as far as the numbers of women entering it. Rucker and Grendin (2007) explained that some of the research also indicated that males and females, especially younger people, may be changing their perceptions as to how one communicates, as the study by. These researches noted that males and females may be interacting in ways that are less defined by gender and more influenced by communication technology. In addition, this study also indicated that males are more open to non traditional forms or ways of communication, such as an inclusive approach.
As changes continue to affect our world and how we communicate, hopefully, we will also slowly redefine effective communication and leadership styles. Perhaps we can begin to undue old stereo types that label collaboration, communication, and sharing as weak, and view them as strengths to be valued either in the workplace or home setting.
References
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